THE ENGLISH LEGAL SYSTEM
Before one considers what laws are and how they are introduced into a society or a circumstance, it is necessary to consider… WHY WE HAVE LAWPeople’s behaviour, sometimes, may lead to generally undesirable outcomes, injurious to one or more others physically or as repugnant. People have sought to establish some rules, to enable the smooth functioning of the societies in which they live, of a kind that themselves can sanction to avoid chaos.WHAT ARE LAWSThe set of rules that regulate behaviour are laws; and those that regulate human behavior in ways that they can be legally sanctioned if breached are men’s Legal Laws.What the should be the basis of such rules, the extent of the limitations on man’s actions, who and how should decide and organize them, apply the sanctions -with what safeguards against injustice and as defined by whom and how, and the growth of society -necessitating variations of them, and other such considerations, are essentially, also part of Law. There has been the Authoritarian View -that law’s intention should be to prevent wickedness, and the moral welfare of the society; and there has been the Libertarian View -that private morality and immorality is one’s own business and not of law: e.g., the Misrepresentations Act 1967.THE AIM OF LAWThe Libertarian view has been mostly preferred, aiming to ensure two things:-1. Primarily, with minimum conflict with natural law, rules for the survival of the society (e.g. regarding murder, theft -mostly criminal in nature), against human greed and aggression.2. Secondarily, to make allowance for growth, and complex situations by way of…a. A system of adjudication for the settling of e.g. mercantile disputesb. A system of who and how to change the rules as and when necessaryc. A system of recognition of the primary rules themselves as legal rules.In a non-complex society an elected body should make, and publicize, and sanction, above all, Criminal Law (rules intended primarily for a simple society with a unity of purpose which is, above all, survival -regarded as being best ensured by considering it most important that the norm should not bedeviated from, to enable cohesion and solidarity). In a complex society there being no unity of purpose and the emphasis being on the interdependency of the members of the society, deviance would not be the most important consideration, and the purpose and the function of any law would be, chiefly, between conflicting individual interests, to maintain a reasonable balance, mostly by Civil Law -for which reason in e.g. European Law the interests of the individual are paramount to those of the state.ENGLISH LAW Classification of English Law is as being, both, affected by, and incorporating in part -and increasingly, international law; it comprises of…INTERNATIONAL LAW and NATIONAL LAW INTERNATIONAL LAWBritain must respect and meet the expectations of various international agreements in the application of its laws -whether binding on it or not, to maintain its political standing among other countries; and, often, such expectations are met by its own, voluntary, incorporating of such laws into English law. This is done, mostly, as a condition of its membership of the European Union, as and when it is directed by Europe -as in the case of the level of its water-purity and the European directive regarding a standard common to all member states of it, and as in the case of the requirement to treat as binding on itself e.g. the Single European Act 1986.NATIONAL LAWNational Law, on the other hand, is that which is made by the state, for the state, and in Britain by its Parliament, intended, within the state, in this case within Britain alone -with variations for Scotland and Northern Ireland, to ensure the non-anarchic organizing and running of the society, in respects from less of consequence to those fundamental, increasingly as written-law, as:-PRIVATE LAW and PUBLIC LAWPRIVATE LAWPrivate Law regulates the dealings of the individuals with each other within the state, under such headings as:-Family Law, Tort, Property Law, Commercial LawFamily Law is a good example of the laws in this category; it deals with matters between individuals such as marriage, divorce, and matters arising as related rights -such as the custody of children, e.g. the Family Law Reform Act 1969.Tort or Torts -as some prefer to call it (from the French word meaning wrong, or wrongs), is the private individual’s right -if without financial assistance from the state s/he can, not to be civilly wronged by another, sometimes by an organization, in respects not contractual, sometimes including such as, with a very fine distinguishing line, may fall short of being criminal ~e.g. negligence, or the Occupiers’ Liability Act 1957.Property Law, also called Land Law, deals with matters of property, such as land that in practice is regarded as personal -although ‘all land belongs to the Crown’, and including matters of dispute over minerals under it and treasure trove, as well as dwellings on it and fittings, often dealt with by the Courts of Chancery -e.g., the Law of Property Act 1925. Commercial Law comprises of laws of major importance in the dealings of individuals with others, such as:-Mercantile Law, Consumer Law, and the Law of Contracts Mercantile Law is the original body of laws that governed commercial dealings ~it was so called because it involved dealings of merchants with each other. As it developed, it concerned itself also with dealings between merchants and the consumer, and the occasional agreements between the individuals -which later grew into separate laws themselves. Almost exclusively, it deals with such matters as competition between traders, trademarks and patents, and e.g., bills of exchange under the Bills of Exchange Act 1982. Consumer Law is from laws-merchant; it regulates the dealings of the individuals with merchants as to, e.g., the quality, and return, of goods purchased, deeming existent a collective contract between the consumers and any trader, as in the Sale of Goods Act 1977(as amended).Contract Law is about the, not necessarily regular, agreements of individuals with others, on specific terms offered and accepted (unless under duress or by coercion), intending it to be legally binding, for consideration in return, e.g., under the Misrepresentations Act 1967.PUBLIC LAW This branch of the law governs the relationships between the state and other states, and between the individual and the state, under such major headings as:-Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, Criminal LawConstitutional Law is about the system, the framework, of who and how, and how come to, govern, by which laws how made and applied, as the state; e.g., the Parliaments Acts 1911, 1914.Administrative Law defines and controls the limits of government, mostly protecting against absolute power, enabling complaints and appeals against the state -e.g., the Human Right Act 1998.Criminal Law regulates such conduct of the individuals as are regarded to be against the society, actionably, punishably, by the state; e.g. Offences Against the Person Act 1861.THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LAWThe differences are, mainly, these:-Public Law are those categories of law, such as Administrative, Constitutional, Criminal, which involve the conduct of the state in relation to itself, or in relation to society generally, through one or more individuals, or the conduct of the individual against the society -mostly through one or more other individuals, in representing the society.Private Law, i.e., Family, Tort, Property, Commercial -with its branches, chiefly, involves the state as only the arbitrator in personal or collective dealings between the individuals.THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CRIMINAL LAW AND CIVIL LAWIF IT IS CRIMINAL LAW…1. It is Public Law2. It is between the state and the individual or organization3. The state (Crown Prosecution Service) complains, prosecutes)4. It is registered as R –v- name of the accused (R = Rex/Regina –the monarch)5. Proof is the states, beyond reasonable doubt6. It is dealt with by Magistrates, or by Crown Court7. It is Not Guilty or Guilty and a Sentence –imprisonment/community-service/fine and trial costs unless on legal assistanceIF IT IS CIVIL LAW…1. It is Private Law2. Its is between individual/s and/or organization/s3. The individual/s or the organization sues4. It is Complainant (plaintiff) –v- Defendant (their names)5. Proof is on a balance of probabilities6. It is dealt with by a County Court or the High Court7. It is a Judgment and the winner is awarded a remedy and, normally, costs THE LEGISLATIVE PROCESS IN ENGLANDThe Sources of English Law Main sources of law in England are:-1. Legislation -including Delegated Legislation…2. Precedent (Judge-made law) -which mostly comprises of the Laws of England and Wales and as (differently) applied in Northern Ireland (the basis being same of the slightly differing Scottish Law -and of the laws of many countries of the British Commonwealth)…3. European Union Law -which is increasingly becoming the major source of English Law (expecting compliance with also the European Convention on Human Rights -the enhanced version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) -e.g., the Human Rights Act 1998 (implemented in 2000) incorporated into English and all United Kingdom law.The Legislator, is the Parliament.The Parliament is the House of Commons, and, the House of Lords -with the Monarch.The House of Commons are the elected representatives ~mostly from political parties -with committees and ‘whips’ (who deal, mostly, with the discipline of their members). By “the supremacy of Parliament”, in fact, is meant the ‘supremacy’ of this House -since the Parliament Acts 1911 & 1949 it can bypass the House of Lords, and, since Queen Anne, in 1707, conventionally, to every Act of it the Monarch always assents.The House of Lords are the unelected representatives, so knighted by the Monarch, some as Hereditary Lords (the eldest son inherits the title) and many increasingly as Life Peers -almost always upon the recommendation of the political parties themselves; the numbers were limited of them with voting rights by the government at the beginning of the 21st century and its members have been considered that should be selected by a panel appointed by government. Its Right to Veto the Commons has been, since 1911, inconsequential, and since 1949 within a year invalid -it serves in effect as a chamber of second opinion and its decisions are not binding on the House of Commons and occasionally have not been followed.The Monarch, since 1707, may not veto Parliamentary Legislation; but, must formally assent to it -although she does not personally sign it, before it can become legislation.Legislation is a law, in the form of a Statute. It is formally enacted -or made, by or by the authority of the Parliament, effective when assented to, as an Act of Parliament.Acts of Parliament, ‘Statutes’ are laws, produced by the Parliament, and comprise also of less important law, with the authority of the Parliament, as Delegated Legislation.Delegated Legislation enables the management of major Legislation by the Legislator -Health & Safety Act 1974, the COSSH Regulations 1988.Statutory Instruments by the Executive’s ministers, through other bodies, make effective such Legislation as about health and safety, transport, and as about social-security and taxation.Orders in Council are by the Monarch with the Privy Council, in cases of emergency -also on appeal from some Commonwealth countries. By-Laws are made, mostly, by Local Councils (Town Halls as, or as part of, County Halls) -by locally and independently elected town or county mayors and councilors with knowledge of their individual districts.The advantages of delegating legislation is that it enables saving time, expertise, and flexibility; the disadvantages are that it gives wide powers to make laws without debate and which may not be as much publicized as the Acts of Parliament themselves and as much known to the public. LegislatingA Bill is a proposed legislation normally producing an Act of Parliament -it normally begins with one or another type of Bill being introduced.Types of BillsThe type of a Bill depends on who propose the legislation -as follows…Public Bills by government, proposing legislation affecting the nation as a whole -were so introduced the Criminal Disorder Act 1998, and, the Access to Justice Act 1999.Private Member’s Bills by members of Parliament, which may be of national effect -the Arbitration Act 1967, the Disability Discrimination Act 1996, both, began so.Private Bills by individuals, through a member of Parliament, affecting fewer -such a bill proposed the University College London Act 1996.A Bill, with slightly variations depending on its type, before becoming Law, goes through a number of stages.Stages of a BillThe Stages of a Bill are, sometimes strictly, with adherence to set procedures, Readings, at both the House of Commons and the House of Lords:-The First Reading involves formally, mostly, Naming the Bill, with its date, and making available printed copies of it, normally, with no, or very little, debate on it…The Second Reading involves Explaining the Bill -debating its general principles, and voting on it…The Committee Stage involves the political parties, which are represented proportionately, putting forward their views -or expert opinion being obtained on it; and at the Report Stage the House being informed of these and the Bill being voted on. ‘Division’ sometimes takes place on how to vote on the Bill among the Members of Parliament, and when so, an Eight-Minute Break is allowed them and their Party Whips to discuss it and to decide how to vote on it.The Third Reading, usually, is, with any verbal amendments to the Bill, the final vote.This procedure is followed by both of the Houses of Parliament, except that Bills may begin not at the House of Lords if they are to do with such matters as taxation.The Royal Assent involves the Signing of a Bill that has gone through all of its previous stages successfully, by the Monarch ~but the Monarch need not, and does not, personally sign it -conventionally, the Monarch does not refuse; and, unless stated that it will become so after a time interval, from then on a Bill becomes formally an Act of Parliament, Law which often authorizes delegated legislation too.It is considered essential to inform the public of the laws proposed and of the laws made, and this is done, at different stages, by way of publishing a White Paper, a Green Paper, and a Statute -delegated legislation also being made in printed form publicly available.These procedures may sometimes be confusing: e.g., section 6 of Employment Protection (Consolidation) Act 1985 was a Bill introduced as being intended to be of psychological effect only and not of any legal effect before passing all of its stages and becoming Law. JUDGE MADE LAWPrecedent, briefly. Britain, unlike the USA and the European Union countries, not having a Written Constitution, Codes of Law enacted by the representatives of the people, English Law is based on Common Law -judge-made law ~judges interpret and (also in those criminal cases where that it is increasingly considered by the government that should not sit juries) apply the law.Where ‘Written Law’ -an Act of Parliament, does exists, they do so under Rules formulated by the English Courts, such as:-The Literal Rule -where the Court does not consider the written law to require judicial interpretation, literally taking the words of the Statute…The Golden Rule -if they consider the literary meaning to be, e.g., absurd of any Written Law, interpreting it as they would consider not perverse.The Mischief Rule -if the Court considers it must interpret the purpose of the written law -the Intentions of Parliament, which they do under the Interpretations Act 1889 -barring reference to the Hansard (the official transcript of all words spoken in the Parliament -placed in its library).These Rules are sometimes confusingly stated, and in relation to appeals, e.g. from cases under the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, its is stated that “no issue of law arises if the Tribunal simply misunderstood or misapplied the facts” -following reference to precedent that an issue of law arises if a decision is “inconsistent with the evidence”. A Decision, in English Law, consists of two parts, the ‘Ratio Decidendi’, and the ‘Obiter Dicta’ -the former being Precedent, the binding part, which sets out what the Principle is ~the latter being things said by the way -which are not binding but may be persuasive.Until the late 1990′s English courts and tribunals did not have to give reasons for their decisions, including in civil cases in which juries do not normally sit in Britain -European Law now requires them to do so, often if within a specific period of time ask to do so.The Principle, unless ‘distinguished’ becomes ‘Precedent’ binding on all lower courts, and in the case of the Court of Appeal also on itself.Precedent are reported by the Incorporated Council of Law Reporting in the Weekly Law Reports (WLR) officially, and privately in e.g., the All England Law Reports (AELR).Precedent, to all intents and purposes, is Law until it is reversed by a higher national Court or by the European Court, or becomes obsolete by an Act of Parliament, or by European Union Law.Judge-made Law is regarded mainly to have the advantage of being not rigid and enabling for changes more quickly than it may take parliament to make them -its disadvantage is considered to be that unlike as in the case of Codes it is law which is not by elected representatives of people.PARLIAMENTARY SUPREMACY The Presumption of the Supremacy of the British Parliament in respect of English Law is, briefly, based on the Monarch no longer refusing to give assent to a Bill passed by the Parliament, coupled with that of Precedent being in line with the Intentions of Parliament.The Inconsistency of that presumption has been proposed on the fact of the European Law (including the decisions of the European Court and of its ‘national branches’ which are empowered to declare any law made by the British Parliament ‘not law’ and of no legal effect where it is the view of Europe that Britain ought not to have such a law -e.g., for the reason that it contravenes the Articles of the European Convention on Human Rights) being binding on the United Kingdom Government and on its Courts -as on all other member states of it.Laws in the European Union states continue increasingly and rapidly to change in the course of commonization of various laws, and in Britain, within a short time of a Department of Constitutional Affairs being created in addition to the Lord Chancellor’s Department, also a Ministry of Justice was added –it is wise when it may otherwise be of consequence to always ascertain what current laws are.